An electric car or electric vehicle (EV) is a passenger automobile that is propelled by an electric traction motor, using electrical energy as the primary source of propulsion. The term normally refers to a plug-in electric vehicle, typically a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which only uses energy stored in on-board battery packs, but broadly may also include plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), which can convert electric power from other fuels via a generator or a fuel cell.
Compared to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric cars are quieter, more responsive, have superior energy conversion efficiency and no exhaust emissions, as well as a lower overall carbon footprint from manufacturing to end of life[1][2] (even when a power plant supplying the electricity might add to its emissions). Due to the superior efficiency of electric motors, electric cars also generate less waste heat, thus reducing the need for engine cooling systems that are often large, complicated and maintenance-prone in ICE vehicles.
The electric vehicle battery typically needs to be plugged into a mains electricity power supply for recharging in order to maximize the cruising range. Recharging an electric car can be done at different kinds of charging stations; these charging stations can be installed in private homes, parking garages and public areas.[3] There is also research and development in, as well as deployment of, other technologies such as battery swapping and inductive charging. As the recharging infrastructure (especially fast chargers) is still in its infancy, range anxiety and time cost are frequent psychological obstacles during consumer purchasing decisions against electric cars.
Worldwide, 14 million plug-in electric cars were sold in 2023, 18% of new car sales, up from 14% in 2022.[4] Many countries have established government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles, tax credits, subsidies, and other non-monetary incentives while several countries have legislated to phase-out sales of fossil fuel cars,[5][6] to reduce air pollution and limit climate change.[7][8] EVs are expected to account for over one-fifth of global car sales in 2024.[4]
China currently has the largest stock of electric vehicles in the world, with cumulative sales of 5.5 million units through December 2020,[9][needs update] although these figures also include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such as buses, garbage trucks and sanitation vehicles, and only accounts for vehicles manufactured in China.[10][11][12][13][14][15] In the United States and the European Union, as of 2020, the total cost of ownership of recent electric vehicles is cheaper than that of equivalent ICE cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs.[16][17]
In 2023, the Tesla Model Y became the world’s best selling car.[18] The Tesla Model 3 became the world’s all-time best-selling electric car in early 2020,[19] and in June 2021 became the first electric car to pass 1 million global sales.[20] Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving, connected vehicles and shared mobility, electric cars form a future mobility vision called Autonomous, Connected, Electric and Shared (ACES) Mobility.[21][page needed]
Terminology
[edit]
See also: Vehicle classification by propulsion system, Plug-in electric vehicle § Terminology, and Battery electric vehicle
The term “electric car” typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) or all-electric cars, a type of electric vehicle (EV) that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for the wheels. The term generally refers to highway-capable automobiles, but there are also low-speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight, power, and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on certain public roads. The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in the United States,[22] and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe.[23]
History
[edit]
Main article: History of the electric vehicle
Early developments
[edit]
Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing the first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839.[24]
The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s:
- In 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car driven by an improved Siemens motor at the Exposition internationale d’Électricité de Paris.[25]
- in 1882 Werner von Siemens presents the Electromote, the world’s first trolleybus, in Berlin.
- In 1884, Thomas Parker built an electric car in Wolverhampton, England using his own specially-designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895.[26][27][28]
- In 1888, the German Andreas Flocken designed the Flocken Elektrowagen, regarded by some as the first “real” electric car.[29][30][31]
- In 1890, Andrew Morrison introduced the first electric car to the United States.[32]
Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline-driven cars of the time.[33] The electric vehicle fleet peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century.[34]
In 1897, electric cars first found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States. In London, Walter Bersey‘s electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn.[35] In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the Electrobat II, formed part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia.[36] During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the United States included Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, and Detroit Electric. Their electric vehicles were quieter than gasoline-powered ones, and did not require gear changes.[37][38]
Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century.[39] The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph) in 1899.
Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars and mass production of cheaper gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles, especially the Ford Model T, led to a decline.[32] ICE cars’ much quicker refueling times and cheaper production costs made them more popular. However, a decisive moment came with the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor[40] that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.
- Gustave Trouvé‘s personal electric vehicle (1881), the world’s first publicly presented full-scale electric car powered by an improved Siemens motor
- The Electromote, the world’s first trolleybus by Werner von Siemens, Berlin 1882
- The Flocken Elektrowagen (1888) was the first four-wheeled electric car in the world[41]
- Early electric car built by Thomas Parker – photo from 1895[42]
- “La Jamais Contente“, 1899
- NASA‘s Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven (1971)
- The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of 260 km (160 miles) with NiMH batteries in 1999.
- The Tesla Roadster (2008) helped inspire the modern generation of electric vehicles.
Modern electric cars
[edit]
In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal of a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.[43][44] In response, automakers developed electric models. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market, because of a massive campaign by the US automakers to discredit the idea of electric cars.[45]
California electric-automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what would become the Tesla Roadster, first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.[46]
Better Place, a venture-backed company based in Palo Alto, California, but steered from Israel, developed and sold battery charging and battery swapping services for electric cars. The company was publicly launched on 29 October 2007 and announced deployment of electric vehicle networks in Israel, Denmark and Hawaii in 2008 and 2009. The company planned to deploy the infrastructure on a country-by-country basis. In January 2008, Better Place announced a memorandum of understanding with Renault-Nissan to build the world’s first Electric Recharge Grid Operator (ERGO) model for Israel. Under the agreement, Better Place would build the electric recharge grid and Renault-Nissan would provide the electric vehicles. Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company’s financial difficulties were caused by mismanagement, wasteful efforts to establish toeholds and run pilots in too many countries, the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, and a market penetration far lower than originally predicted.[47]
The Mitsubishi i-MiEV, launched in 2009 in Japan, was the first highway-legal series production electric car,[48] and also the first all-electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Several months later, the Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, surpassed the i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car at that time.[49]
Starting in 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality.[50] During the 2010s, the electric vehicle industry in China expanded rapidly with government support.[51] Several automakers marked up the prices of their electric vehicles in anticipation of the subsidy adjustments, including Tesla, Volkswagen and Guangzhou-based GAC Group, which counts Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota as foreign partners.[52]
In July 2019 US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully-electric Tesla Model S the title “ultimate car of the year”.[53] In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the world’s all-time best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered;[19] it reached the milestone of 1 million global sales in June 2021.[20]
The global stock of both plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) has grown steadily since the 2010s.[54]
_annual_sales_-_BloombergNEF.svg)
Sales of passenger electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles.[55]
In the third quarter of 2021, the Alliance for Automotive Innovation reported that sales of electric vehicles had reached six percent of all US light-duty automotive sales, the highest volume of EV sales ever recorded at 187,000 vehicles. This was an 11% sales increase, as opposed to a 1.3% increase in gasoline and diesel-powered units. The report indicated that California was the US leader in EV with nearly 40% of US purchases, followed by Florida – 6%, Texas – 5% and New York 4.4%.[56]
Electric companies from the Middle East have been designing electric cars. Oman’s Mays Motors have developed the Mays i E1 which is expected to begin production in 2023. Built from carbon fibre, it has a range of about 560 km (350 miles) and can accelerate from 0–130 km/h (0–80 mph) in about 4 secs.[57] In Turkey, the EV company Togg is starting production of its electric vehicles. Batteries will be created in a joint venture with the Chinese company Farasis Energy.[58]
Economics
[edit]
Manufacturing cost
[edit]
The most expensive part of an electric car is its battery. The price decreased from €605 per kWh in 2010, to €170 in 2017, to €100 in 2019.[59][60] When designing an electric vehicle, manufacturers may find that for low production, converting existing platforms may be cheaper, as development cost is lower; however, for higher production, a dedicated platform may be preferred to optimize design, and cost.[61]
Total cost of ownership
[edit]
In the EU and US, but not yet China, the total cost of ownership of recent electric cars is cheaper than that of equivalent gasoline cars, due to lower fueling and maintenance costs.[16][17][62] A 2024 Consumer Reports analysis of 29 car brands found Tesla was the least expensive to maintain over a 10-year period; Tesla was the only all-electric brand included.[63]
The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car.[64] The break-even distance varies by country depending on the taxes, subsidies, and different costs of energy. In some countries the comparison may vary by city, as a type of car may have different charges to enter different cities; for example, in England, London charges ICE cars more than Birmingham does.[65]
Purchase cost
[edit]
Several national and local governments have established EV incentives to reduce the purchase price of electric cars and other plug-ins.[66][67][68][69]
As of 2020, the electric vehicle battery is more than a quarter of the total cost of the car.[70] Purchase prices are expected to drop below those of new ICE cars when battery costs fall below US$100 per kWh, which is forecast to be in the mid-2020s.[71][72]
Leasing or subscriptions are popular in some countries,[73][74] depending somewhat on national taxes and subsidies,[75] and end of lease cars are expanding the second hand market.[76]
In a June 2022 report by AlixPartners, the cost for raw materials on an average EV rose from $3,381 in March 2020 to $8,255 in May 2022. The cost increase voice is attributed mainly to lithium, nickel, and cobalt.[77]
Running costs
[edit]
Electricity almost always costs less than gasoline per kilometer travelled, but the price of electricity often varies depending on where and what time of day the car is charged.[78][79] Cost savings are also affected by the price of gasoline which can vary by location.[80]
Environmental aspects
[edit]
Main article: Environmental aspects of the electric car
Electric cars have several benefits when replacing ICE cars, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, as they do not emit exhaust pollutants such as volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen.[83] Similar to ICE vehicles, electric cars emit particulates from tyre and brake wear[84] which may damage health,[85] although regenerative braking in electric cars means less brake dust.[86] More research is needed on non-exhaust particulates.[87] The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to gasoline tank) causes further damage as well as use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes.
Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to charge the vehicle, emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the plants that generate electricity and produce the car as well as to the transportation of material.[43] The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source and the efficiency of the vehicle. For electricity from the grid, the life-cycle emissions vary depending on the proportion of coal-fired power, but are always less than ICE cars.[88]
The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than three years.[89] According to a 2020 study, balancing lithium supply and demand for the rest of the century will require good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation.[90]
The adoption of electric cars has accelerated due to advancements in battery technology, environmental concerns, and supportive government policies, making them a key player in the transition to cleaner transportation options.[91] [92]
Some activists and journalists have raised concerns over the perceived lack of impact of electric cars in solving the climate change crisis[93] compared to other, less popularized methods.[94] These concerns have largely centered around the existence of less carbon-intensive and more efficient forms of transportation such as active mobility,[95] mass transit and e-scooters and the continuation of a system designed for cars first.[96]
Public opinion
[edit]
A 2022 survey found that 33% of car buyers in Europe will opt for a petrol or diesel car when purchasing a new vehicle. 67% of the respondents mentioned opting for the hybrid or electric version.[98][99] More specifically, it found that electric cars are only preferred by 28% of Europeans, making them the least preferred type of vehicle. 39% of Europeans tend to prefer hybrid vehicles, while 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles.[98][100]
44% Chinese car buyers, on the other hand, are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car.[98][101]
Specifically for the EU, 47% of car buyers over 65 years old are likely to purchase a hybrid vehicle, while 31% of younger respondents do not consider hybrid vehicles a good option. 35% would rather opt for a petrol or diesel vehicle, and 24% for an electric car instead of a hybrid.[98][102]
In the EU, only 13% of the total population do not plan on owning a vehicle at all.[98]
Performance
[edit]
Acceleration and drivetrain design
[edit]
Electric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios. Batteries can be designed to supply the electrical current needed to support these motors. Electric motors have a flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and reliability, most electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch.
Many electric cars have faster acceleration than average ICE cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses and the more quickly-available torque of an electric motor.[103] However, NEVs may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors.
Electric vehicles can also use a motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels; this is rare but claimed to be safer.[104] Electric vehicles that lack an axle, differential, or transmission can have less drivetrain inertia. Some direct current motor-equipped drag racer EVs have simple two-speed manual transmissions to improve top speed.[105] The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph) in 2.5 seconds. Tesla claims the upcoming Tesla Roadster will go 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 1.9 seconds.[106]
Energy efficiency
[edit]
Main article: Electric car energy efficiency
Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as a fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles convert over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels.[107][108][109]
Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration.[110] Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking.[43][108]
Cabin heating and cooling
[edit]
Combustion powered cars harness waste heat from the engine to provide cabin heating, but this option is not available in an electric vehicle. While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump, such as on the Nissan Leaf.[111] PTC junction cooling[112] is also attractive for its simplicity—this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.
To avoid using part of the battery’s energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and Tesla cars can be preheated while the vehicle is plugged in.[113][114][115]
Some electric cars (for example, the Citroën Berlingo Electrique) use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice “green” and “Zero emissions” credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked; two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option.[116]
Safety
[edit]
The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided into three parts dealing with specific issues:
- On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery[117]
- Functional safety means and protection against failures[118]
- Protection of persons against electrical hazards[119]
Research published in the British Medical Journal in 2024 indicates that between 2013 and 2017 in the United Kingdom, electric cars killed pedestrians at twice the rate of petrol or diesel vehicles because “they are less audible to pedestrians in urban areas”.[120] Jurisdictions have passed laws requiring electric vehicles to be manufactured with sound generators.[120]
Weight
[edit]
The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle. In a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle will, on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits to the occupant, while increasing harm to others.[121] On average, an accident will cause about 50% more injuries to the occupants of a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle than those in a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) vehicle.[122] Heavier cars are more dangerous to people outside the car if they hit a pedestrian or another vehicle.[123]
Stability
[edit]
The battery in skateboard configuration lowers the center of gravity, increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control.[124] Additionally, a lower center of gravity provides a greater resistance to roll-over crashes.[125] If there is a separate motor near or in each wheel, this is claimed to be safer due to better handling.[126]
Risk of fire
[edit]
Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents
Like their ICE counterparts, electric vehicle batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure.[127] Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have occurred, albeit fewer per distance traveled than ICE vehicles.[128] Some cars’ high-voltage systems are designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment,[129][130] and in case of failure firefighters may be trained for manual high-voltage system shutdown.[131][132] Much more water may be required than for ICE car fires and a thermal imaging camera is recommended to warn of possible re-ignition of battery fires.[133][134]
Controls
[edit]
As of 2018, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear, and no parking pawl may be present, the modes “P” and “N” are often still provided on the selector. In this case, the motor is disabled in “N” and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the “P” mode.
In some cars, the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in “D”, similar to a traditional automatic transmission car.[135]
When an internal combustion vehicle’s accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking, depending on the type of transmission and mode. EVs are usually equipped with regenerative braking that slows the vehicle and recharges the battery somewhat.[136] Regenerative braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes (similar to engine braking in an ICE vehicle), reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.
Batteries
[edit]
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
Lithium-ion-based batteries are often used for their high power and energy density.[137] Batteries with different chemical compositions are becoming more widely used, such as lithium iron phosphate which is not dependent on nickel and cobalt so can be used to make cheaper batteries and thus cheaper cars.[138]
Range
[edit]
Further information: List of electric cars currently available
The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and (as with all vehicles), the aerodynamics, weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, and the weather.[140] Cars marketed for mainly city use are often manufactured with a short range battery to keep them small and light.[141]
Most electric cars are fitted with a display of the expected range. This may take into account how the vehicle is being used and what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route, the estimate can vary from the actual range. The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency.[142]
Charging
[edit]
Connectors
[edit]
Main article: IEC 62196
Most electric cars use a wired connection to supply electricity for recharging. Electric vehicle charging plugs are not universal throughout the world. However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations through the use of plug adapters.[143]
The Type 2 connector is the most common type of plug, but different versions are used in China and Europe.[144][145]
The Type 1 (also called SAE J1772) connector is common in North America[146][147] but rare elsewhere, as it does not support three-phase charging.[148]
Wireless charging, either for stationary cars or as an electric road,[149] is less common as of 2021, but is used in some cities for taxis.[150][151]
Home charging
[edit]
Electric cars are usually charged overnight from a home charging station; sometimes known as a charging point, wallbox charger, or simply a charger; in a garage or on the outside of a house.[152][153] As of 2021 typical home chargers are 7 kW, but not all include smart charging.[152] Compared to fossil fuel vehicles, the need for charging using public infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging; vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge.[154] Charging from a standard outlet is also possible but very slow.
Public charging
[edit]
Main article: Electric vehicle charging network
Public charging stations are almost always faster than home chargers,[155] with many supplying direct current to avoid the bottleneck of going through the car’s AC to DC converter,[156] as of 2021 the fastest being 350 kW.[157]
Combined Charging System (CCS) is the most widespread charging standard,[145] whereas the GB/T 27930 standard is used in China, and CHAdeMO in Japan. The United States has no de facto standard, with a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO charging stations.
Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than refueling a fossil fuel vehicle. The speed at which a vehicle can recharge depends on the charging station’s charging speed and the vehicle’s own capacity to receive a charge. As of 2021 some cars are 400-volt and some 800-volt.[158] Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle’s battery to 80% in 15 to 20 minutes. [159][160]
Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as two hours to refill a battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it.[citation needed]
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Some companies are building battery swapping stations, to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge.[161][162] Some electric cars (for example, the BMW i3) have an optional gasoline range extender. The system is intended as an emergency backup to extend range to the next recharging location, and not for long-distance travel.[163]
Electric roads
[edit]
Main article: Electric road
An electric road system (ERS) is a road which supplies electric power to vehicles travelling on it. Common implementations are overhead power lines above the road, ground-level power supply through conductive rails, and dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) through resonant inductive coils or inductive rails embedded in the road. Overhead power lines are limited to commercial vehicles while ground-level rails and inductive power transfer can be used by any vehicle, which allows for public charging through a power metering and billing systems. Of the three methods, ground-level conductive rails are estimated to be the most cost-effective.[164]: 10–11
National electric road projects
[edit]
Government studies and trials have been conducted in several countries seeking a national electric road network.
Korea was the first to implement an induction-based public electric road with a commercial bus line in 2013 after testing an experimental shuttle service in 2009,[165]: 11–18 but it was shut down due to aging infrastructure amidst controversy over the continued public funding of the technology.[166]
United Kingdom municipal projects in 2015[167] and 2021 found wireless electric roads financially unfeasible.[168]
Sweden has been performing assessments of various electric road technologies since 2013 under the Swedish Transport Administration electric road program.[169]: 5 After receiving electric road construction offers in excess of the project’s budget in 2023, Sweden pursued cost-reduction measures for either wireless or rail electric roads.[170] The project’s final report was published in 2024, which recommended against funding a national electric road network in Sweden as it would not be cost-effective, unless the technology was adopted by its trading partners such as by France and Germany.[171][172]
Germany found in 2023 that the wireless electric road system (wERS) by Electreon collects 64.3% of the transmitted energy, poses many difficulties during installation, and blocks access to other infrastructure in the road.[173] Germany trialed overhead lines in three projects and reported they are too expensive, difficult to maintain, and pose a safety risk.[174][175][176]
France found similar drawbacks for overhead lines as Germany did. France began several electric road pilot projects in 2023 for inductive and rail systems.[177] Ground-level power supply systems are considered the most likely candidates.[178]
Vehicle-to-grid: uploading and grid buffering
[edit]
Main article: Vehicle-to-grid
During peak load periods, when the cost of generation can be very high, electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid capabilities could contribute energy to the grid. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. The batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to buffer power.[179]
Lifespan
[edit]
Main article: Rechargeable battery § Lifespan and cycle stability
As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently charged to 100%; however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable.[180] A typical warranty is 8 years or 100,000 mi (160,000 km),[181] but for non-professional drivers mileage may not be relevant, and the batteries usually last much longer,[182] perhaps 15 to 20 years in the car and then more years in another use.[183]
Currently available electric cars
[edit]
Sales of electric cars
[edit]
Main article: List of production battery electric vehicles
Tesla became the world’s leading electric vehicle manufacturer in December 2019.[184][185] Its Model S was the world’s top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 and 2016,[186][187] its Model 3 has been the world’s best selling plug-in electric car for four consecutive years, from 2018 to 2021, and the Model Y was the top selling plug-in car in 2022.[188][189][190][191][192] The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the world’s cumulative best selling electric car.[19] Tesla produced its 1 millionth electric car in March 2020, becoming the first auto manufacturer to do so,[193] and in June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to pass 1 million sales.[20] Tesla has been listed as the world’s top selling plug-in electric car manufacturer, both as a brand and by automotive group for four years running, from 2018 to 2021.[189][194][195][196][190] At the end of 2021, Tesla’s global cumulative sales since 2012 totaled 2.3 million units,[197] with 936,222 of those delivered in 2021.[198]
BYD Auto is another leading electric vehicle manufacturer, with the majority of its sales coming from China. From 2018 to 2023, BYD produced nearly 3.18 million purely plug-in electric car, with 1,574,822 of those were produced in 2023 alone.[199] In the fourth quarter of 2023, BYD surpassed Tesla as the top-selling electric vehicle manufacturer by selling 526,409 battery electric cars, while Tesla delivered 484,507 vehicles.[200][201]
As of December 2021, the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance listed as one of major all-electric vehicle manufacturers, with global all-electric vehicle sales totaling over 1 million light-duty electric vehicles, including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors since 2009.[202][203] Nissan leads global sales within the Alliance, with 1 million cars and vans sold by July 2023,[204] followed by the Groupe Renault with more than 397,000 electric vehicles sold worldwide through December 2020, including its Twizy heavy quadricycle.[205] As of July 2023, global sales totaled over 650,000 units since inception.[204]
Other leading electric vehicles manufacturers are GAC Aion (part of GAC Group, with 962,385 cumulative sales as of December 2023),[206] SAIC Motor with 1,838,000 units (as of July 2023), Geely, and Volkswagen.[207][208][209][210][211]
The following table lists the all-time best-selling highway-capable all-electric cars with cumulative global sales of over 300,000 units:
| Company | Model | Image | Market launch | Lifetime global sales | Total sales through | Annual global sales | Status | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tesla, Inc. | Tesla Model Y | 2020-03 | 3,393,136 | 2024-09 | 1,200,000 (2024, estimate) | In production | [188][189][212][213][214][215][216][217] | |
Tesla, Inc. | Tesla Model 3 | 2017-07 | 2,627,871 | 2024-09 | 500,000 (2024, estimate) | In production | [188][189][218][212][215][216] | |
SAIC-GM-Wuling | Wuling Hongguang Mini EV | 2020-07 | 1,426,929 | 2024-12 | 261,141 (2024) | In production | [188][189][212][219][220][221] | |
BYD | BYD Yuan Plus / Atto 3 | 2022-02 | 923,796 | 2024-12 | 309,536 (2024) | In production | [220][222][223] | |
BYD | BYD Dolphin | 2021-08 | 800,754 | 2024-12 | 198,320 (2024) | In production | [188][212][224][225][226] | |
BYD | BYD Seagull | 2023-04 | 759,511 | 2024-12 | 479,294 (2024) | In production | [227][228] | |
Nissan | Nissan Leaf | 2010-12 | ~650,000 | 2023-07 | 64,201 (2021) | In production | [189][204] | |
GAC Group | Aion S | 2019-05 | 608,162 | 2024-12 | 122,793 (2024) | In production | [188][189][212][229][230][222] | |
BYD | BYD Qin EV | 2016-03 | 596,487 | 2024-12 | 142,330 (2024) | In production | [222][220][231][232][233][234] | |
GAC Group | Aion Y | 2021-04 | 528,502 | 2024-12 | 145,152 (2024) | In production | [222][220][231][235] | |
Volkswagen | Volkswagen ID.4 | 2020-09 | 493,219 | 2023-12 | 192,686 (2023) | In production | [188][189][236][215] | |
BYD | BYD Han EV | 2020-03 | 456,306 | 2024-12 | 89,177 (2024) | In production | [222][220][231][232][234] | |
| Wuling | Wuling Binguo | 2023-02 | 425,033 | 2024-12 | 191,298 (2024) | In production | [237][238] | |
Renault | Renault Zoe | 2012-12 | 413,975 | 2023-06 | 15,706 (2023) | Ceased production | [205][239][240][241] | |
Hyundai | Hyundai Kona Electric | 2018-05 | 382,271 | 2024-12 | 52,628 (2024) | In production | [242] | |
Hyundai | Hyundai Ioniq 5 | 2021-03 | 373,826 | 2024-12 | 93,396 (2024) | In production | [242] | |
Chery | Chery eQ1 | 2017-03 | 368,361 | 2024-12 | 30,310 (2024) | In production | [243][244][245][246] | |
Tesla, Inc. | Tesla Model S | 2012-06 | ~363,900 | 2022-12 | ~35,000 (2022) | In production | [247] | |
Changan Automobile | Changan Lumin | 2022-04 | 355,994 | 2024-12 | 141,246 (2024) | In production | [248][249][250] | |
Volkswagen | Volkswagen ID.3 | 2019-11 | 325,770 | 2023-12 | 139,268 (2023) | In production | [251][252][253][215] | |
| Notes: (1) Vehicles are considered highway-capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). | ||||||||
Electric cars by country
[edit]
Main article: electric car use by country
In the year of 2021, the total number of electric cars on the world’s roads went to about 16.5 million. The sales of electric cars in the first quarter of 2022 went up to 2 million.[254] China has the largest all-electric car fleet in use, with 2.58 million at the end of 2019, more than half (53.9%) of the world’s electric car stock.
All-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids since 2012.[255][191][192][256]
Annual sales of plug-in electric passenger cars in the world’s top markets between 2011 and 2023[257][258][259][260][261][262][263][264][265]
Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2023[255][191][192][266][267][256]
Government policies and incentives
[edit]
Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
See also: Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass-market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide: financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; electric vehicle charging stations in buildings; and long-term regulations with specific targets.[258][268][269]
| Selected countries | Year |
|---|---|
| Norway (100% ZEV sales) | 2025 |
| Denmark | 2030 |
| Iceland | |
| Ireland | |
| Netherlands (100% ZEV sales) | |
| Sweden | |
| United Kingdom (100% ZEV sales) | 2035 |
| France | 2040 |
| Canada (100% ZEV sales) | |
| Singapore | |
| Germany (100% ZEV sales) | 2050 |
| U.S. (10 ZEV states) | |
| Japan (100% HEV/PHEV/ZEV sales) |
Financial incentives for consumers are aiming to make electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the higher upfront cost of electric vehicles. Depending on battery size, there are one-time purchase incentives such as grants and tax credits; exemptions from import duties; exemptions from road tolls and congestion charges; and exemption of registration and annual fees.
Among the non-monetary incentives, there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, free parking and free charging.[268] Some countries or cities that restrict private car ownership (for example, a purchase quota system for new vehicles), or have implemented permanent driving restrictions (for example, no-drive days), have these schemes exclude electric vehicles to promote their adoption.[271][272][273][274][275][276] Several countries, including England and India, are introducing regulations that require electric vehicle charging stations in certain buildings.[269][277][278]
Some government have also established long term regulatory signals with specific targets such as zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandates, national or regional CO2 emission regulations, stringent fuel economy standards, and the phase out of internal combustion engine vehicle sales.[258][268] For example, Norway set a national goal that by 2025 all new car sales should be ZEVs (battery electric or hydrogen).[279][280] While these incentives aim to facilitate a quicker transition from internal combustion cars, they have been criticized by some economists for creating excess deadweight loss in the electric car market, which may partially counteract environmental gains.[281][282][283]
EV plans from major manufacturers
[edit]
 | hideThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)This section needs to be updated. (April 2024)The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with outside China and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (August 2021) |
Electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant traction as an integral component of the global automotive landscape in recent years. Major automakers from around the world have adopted EVs as a critical component of their strategic plans, indicating a paradigm shift toward sustainable transportation.
| As of | Manufacturer | Investment | Investment Timeframe | # EVs | Year Goal | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2020-11 | Volkswagen | $86 billion | 2025 | 27 | 2022 | Plans 27 electric vehicles by 2022, on a dedicated EV platform dubbed “Modular Electric Toolkit” and initialed as MEB.[284] In November 2020 it announced the intention to invest $86 billion in the following five years, aimed at developing EVs and increasing its share in the EV market. Total capital expenditure will include “digital factories”, automotive software and self-driving cars.[285] |
| 2020-11 | GM | $27 billion | 30 | 2035[286] | Announced that it is boosting its EV and self-driving investment from $20 billion to $27 billion, and it currently plans to have 30 EVs on the market by the end of 2025 (including: the Hummer EV; the Cadillac Lyriq SUV; Buick, GMC, and Chevrolet EVs; and a Chevy compact crossover EV).[287] CEO Barra said 40% of the vehicles GM will offer in the United States will be battery electric vehicles by the end of 2025.[288] GM’s “BEV3” next-generation electric vehicle platform is designed to be flexible for use in many different vehicle types, such as front, rear and all-wheel drive configurations.[289] | |
| 2019-01 | Mercedes | $23 billion | 2030 | 10 | 2022 | Plans to increase their electric car manufacturing to 50% in global sales by 2030.[290] |
| 2019-07 | Ford | $29 billion[291] | 2025 | Will use Volkswagen’s Modular Electric Toolkit (“MEB”) to design and build its own fully electric vehicles starting in 2023.[292] The Ford Mustang Mach-E is an electric crossover that will reach up to 480 km (300 miles).[293] Ford is planning to release an electric F-150 in the 2021 time frame.[294][295] | ||
| 2019-03 | BMW | 12 | 2025 | Plans 12 all electric vehicles by 2025, using a fifth-generation electric powertrain architecture, which will save weight and cost and increase capacity.[296] BMW has ordered €10 billion worth of battery cells for the period from 2021 through 2030.[297][298][299] | ||
| 2020-01 | Hyundai | 23 | 2025 | Announced that it plans 23 pure electric cars by 2025.[300] Hyundai will announce its next generation electric vehicle platform, named e-GMP, in 2021.[301] | ||
| 2019-06 | Toyota | Has developed a global EV platform named e-TNGA that can accommodate a three-row SUV, sporty sedan, small crossover or a boxy compact.[302] Toyota and Subaru will release a new EV on a shared platform;[303] it will be about the size of a Toyota RAV4 or a Subaru Forester. | ||||
| 2019-04 | 29 automakers | $300 billion | 2029 | A Reuters analysis of 29 global automakers concluded that automakers are planning on spending $300 billion over the next 5 to 10 years on electric cars, with 45% of that investment projected to occur in China.[304] | ||
| 2020-10 | Fiat | Launched its new electric version of the New 500 for sale in Europe starting in early 2021.[305][306] | ||||
| 2020-11 | Nissan | Announced the intention to sell only electric and hybrid cars in China from 2025, introducing nine new models. Nissan other plans includes manufacturing, by 2035, half zero-emission vehicles and half gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles.[307] In 2018 Infiniti, the luxury brand of Nissan, announced that by 2021 all newly introduced vehicles will be electric or hybrid.[308] | ||||
| 2020-12 | Audi | €35 billion | 2021–2025 | 20 | 2025 | 30 new electrified models by 2025, of which 20 PEV.[309] By 2030–2035, Audi intends to offer just electric vehicles.[310] |
Forecasts
[edit]
Total global EV sales in 2030 were predicted to reach 31.1 million by Deloitte.[311] The International Energy Agency predicted that the total global stock of EVs would reach almost 145 million by 2030 under current policies, or 230 million if Sustainable Development policies were adopted.[312]
As of 2024, there are approximately 600 million people in sub-Saharan Africa without access to electricity, representing 83% of the world’s unelectrified population.[313] The World Bank Group and the African Development Bank plan to provide access to electricity to 300 million people in that region by 2030.[313] At this time, there are just over 20,000 electric vehicles and less than 1,000 charging stations in Africa.[314] However, EV manufacturers have already built or are planning to build production plants in 21 African countries.[314]
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